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EXISTING TEACHING METHODOLOGIES AND APPROACHES

UNIT 6: EXISTING TEACHING METHODOLOGIES AND APPROACHES

1. Differences between approaches, methods, procedures and techniques

* So, the way I teach Emilio… is it an approach, a methodology, a technique?

Within the general area of ‘methodology’ people talk about approaches, methods, techniques, procedures and models, all of which go into the practice of English teaching. These terms, though somewhat vague, are defined in Jeremy Harmer’s book The practice of English language teaching as follows:

- Approach: this refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning. An approach describes how language is used and how its constituent parts interlock –in other words it offers a model of language competence. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about the conditions that will promote successful language learning.

- Method: a method is the practical realization of an approach. The originators of a method have arrived at decisions about types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of material which will be helpful, and some model of syllabus organization. Methods include various procedures and techniques (see below) as part of their standard fare.

When methods have fixed procedures, informed by a clearly articulated approach, they are easy to describe. The more all embracing they become, however, the more difficult it is to categorize them as real methods in their own right.

- Procedure: a procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. For example, a popular dictation procedure starts when students are put in small groups. Each group then sends one representative to the front of the class to read (and remember) the first line of a poem, which has been placed on a desk there. Each student then goes back to their respective group and dictates that line. Each group then sends a second student up to read the second line. The procedure continues until one group has written the whole poem.

A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that… Smaller than a method, it is bigger than a technique.

- Technique: a common technique when using video material is called ‘silent viewing’. This is where the teacher plays the video with no sound. Silent viewing is a single activity rather than a sequence, and as such is a technique rather than a whole procedure. Likewise the ‘finger technique’ is used by some teachers who hold up their hands and give each of their five fingers a word, e.g. He is not playing tennis, and then by bringing the is and the not fingers together, show how the verb is contracted into isn’t.

- Model: A term that is also used in discussions about teaching is ‘model’- used to describe typical procedures or sets of procedures, usually for teachers in training. Such models offer abstractions of these procedures, designed to guide teaching practice. Confusion occurs when these models are elevated to the status of methods, since their purpose is pedagogic in terms of training, rather than inspirational as statements of theoretical belief.

The way in which people announce and develop new teaching practices can make discussions of comparative methodology somewhat confusing. Some methodologists, for example, have new insights and claim a new ‘approach’ as a result. Others claim the status of method for a technique or procedure. Some methods start as procedures and techniques, which seem to work and for which an approach is then developed. Some approaches have to go in search of procedures and techniques with which to form a method. Some methods are explicit about the approach they exemplify and the procedures they employ. Others are not.

What the interested teacher needs to do when confronted with a new method, for example, is to see if and/or how it incorporates theories of language and learning. What procedures does it incorporate? Are they appropriate and effective for the classroom situation that the teacher works with? In the case of techniques and activities, two questions seem worth asking: are they satisfying for both students and teachers, and do they actually achieve what they set out to achieve?

Popular methodologies include ideas at all the various levels we have discussed, and it is these methods, procedures, approaches (and models) which influence the current state of English language teaching.

2. Teaching approaches and methodologies

The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

The Grammar-translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the source language and their native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the target language, and to further students’ general intellectual development.

There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes. One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level where they can read literature in the target language. The other is to develop students’ general mental discipline. The users of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in the literature of foreign languages. Therefore, this method focuses on reading and writing and has developed techniques which facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked.

Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the translation of classical texts.

There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.

The Direct Method

The Direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners’ native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar-translation method and other traditional approaches. It was adopted by key international language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua in the 1970s.

In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills although work on all four skills is done from the start. Characteristic features of the direct method are:

1- Teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials

2- Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)

3- Centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)

4- Focus on question-answer patterns

Principles:

1- Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.

2- Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are introduced in intermediate phase.

3- Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

4- Grammar is taught inductively.

5- New teaching points are introduced orally.

6- Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.

7- Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.

8- Correct pronunciation receives attention right from the beginning and vocabulary is emphasized over grammar, even though grammar is also paid attention to.

9- Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.

10-Students are taught from the beginning to ask questions as well as answer them.

Suggested videos:

The Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-lingual method or Army Method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on the behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

This approach to language learning was in some aspects similar to the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method stated that the purpose of language learning was communication and it advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Vocabulary is kept to the minimum while students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns of the target language through drilling.

This means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that would result in a student receiving negative feedback.

Oral drills:

Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audiolingual method. These include:

1- Repetition: where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it

2- Inflection: where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated

3- Replacement: where one word is replaced by another

4- Restatement: the student re-phrases an utterance

Examples:

Inflection :

Teacher : I ate the sandwich.

Student : I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement :

Teacher : He bought the car for half-price.

Student : He bought it for half-price.
Restatement :

Teacher : Tell me not to smoke so often.

Student : Don’t smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session:
Teacher: There’s a cup on the table … repeat
Students: There’s a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There’s a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There’s a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There’s a book on the chair

Suggested videos:

(if you don’t want to listen to the intro skip to 3:05)

The Callan Method

The Callan Method is a system of learning English which is a form of the Audio-Lingual Method and the Direct Method of teaching.

The method relies on continual drilling through questions and answers in a 12-step programme. Beginner students are asked a series of questions and then give their set answers (provided initially by the teacher).

The method is simple repetition of set phrases without looking into grammar‏‎ or vocabulary‏‎ or straying outside the set structures and the general aim is to get students talking as soon as possible and beginners will soon be giving stock answers to set questions.

Criticism:

The method has come in for a deal of criticism from many quarters. General concerns raised against it include:

-boring; classes are highly structured and do not allow for freedom of expression or thought

-restrictive

-fluency; whilst students can become very fluent in the set answers they know, when they need to use the language in real life situations not studied before they can become quite lost

-course level; it is only useful for beginners

-context; language is presented out of context

-for teachers it is dull – much repetition with no real freedom to experiment or innovate or take into account different types of classes or learning styles

Suggested videos:

The Silent Way

The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. It was first introduced in Gattegno’s book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way, in 1963. Gattegno was skeptical of the mainstream language education of the time, and conceived the method as a special case of his general theories of education.

The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher’s role is to monitor the students’ efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practising it each lesson. In the Silent Way structures are constantly reviewed and recycled, although there’s not a fixed syllabus since it develops according to learning needs. The choice of vocabulary is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best. Translation and rote repetition are avoided and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.

The teacher uses silence for multiple purposes in the Silent Way. It is used to focus students’ attention, to elicit student responses, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Even though teachers are often silent, they are still active; they will commonly use techniques such as mouthing words and using hand gestures to help the students with their pronunciation. Teachers will also encourage students to help their peers.

Silent Way teachers use specialized teaching materials. One of the hallmarks of the method is the use of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands to representing abstract objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method also makes use of color association to help teach pronunciation; there is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts which are used to teach sentences, and colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling.

Cuisenaire chart

Gattegno’s Fidel chart for British English from 1967; these charts are used to teach spelling.

Suggested videos:

(staging of an intermediate class)

(a detailed narrated description of the method)

(De)Suggestopedia

Often considered to be the strangest of the so-called “humanistic approaches”, Suggestopedia was originally developed in the 1970s by the Bulgarian educator Georgi Lozanov. Extravagant claims were initially made for the approach with Lozanov himself declaring that memorization in learning through suggestopedia would be accelerated by up to 25 times over that in conventional learning methods. The approach attracted both wild enthusiasm in some quarters and open scorn in others. On balance, it is probably fair to say that suggestopedia has had its day but also that certain elements of the approach survive in today’s good practice.

The approach was based on the power of suggestion in learning, the notion being that positive suggestion would make the learner more receptive and, in turn, stimulate learning. Lozanov holds that a relaxed but focused state is the optimum state for learning. In order to create this relaxed state in the learner and to promote positive suggestion, suggestopedia makes use of music, a comfortable and relaxing environment, and a relationship between the teacher and the student that is akin to the parent-child relationship. Music, in particular, is central to the approach. Unlike other methods and approaches, there is no apparent theory of language in suggestopedia and no obvious order in which items of language are presented.

The original form of suggestopedia presented by Lozanov consisted of the use of extended dialogues or texts, often several pages in length, accompanied by vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points. Typically these dialogues would be read aloud to the students to the accompaniment of music. The most formal of these readings, known as the “concert reading”, would typically employ a memorable piece of classical music such as a Beethoven symphony. This would not be in the form of background music but would be the main focus of the reading, with the teacher’s voice acting as a counterpoint to the music. Thus the “concert reading” could be seen as a kind of pleasurable event, with the learners free to focus on the music, the text or a combination of the two. The rhythm and intonation of the reading would be exaggerated in order to fit in with the rhythm of the music.

A second, less formal reading would employ a lighter, less striking piece of music, such as a piece of Baroque music, and this would take a less prominent role. During both types of reading, the learners would sit in comfortable seats, armchairs rather than classroom chairs, in a suitably stimulating environment in terms of décor and lighting. After the readings of these long dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher would then make use of the dialogues for more conventional language work. In theory at least, large chunks of the dialogues would be internalized by the learners during the readings due both to the relaxed and receptive state of the learners and to the positive suggestion created by the music.

There is, however, little evidence to support the extravagant claims of success. The more obvious criticisms lie in the fact that many people find classical music irritating rather than stimulating (to some cultures Western music may sound discordant), the length of the dialogues and the lack of a coherent theory of language may serve to confuse rather than to motivate, and, for purely logistic reasons, the provision of comfortable armchairs and a relaxing environment will probably be beyond the means of most educational establishments.

In addition the idea of a teacher reading a long (and often clearly inauthentic) dialogue aloud, with exaggerated rhythm and intonation, to the accompaniment of Beethoven or Mozart may well seem ridiculous to many people.

This is not to say, however, that certain elements of the approach cannot be taken and incorporated into the more eclectic approach to language teaching widely in evidence today. The use of music both in the background and as an accompaniment to certain activities can be motivating and relaxing. Attention to factors such as décor, lighting and furniture is surely not a bad thing. Dialogues too have their uses. Perhaps most importantly of all the ideas, creating conditions in which learners are alert and receptive can only have a positive effect on motivation. Whether these conditions are best created by the use of classical music and the reading of dialogues is open to questions but there is no doubt that suggestopedia has raised some interesting questions in the areas of both learning and memory.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total physical response (TPR) is a language-teaching method developed by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University. It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language, and students respond with whole-body actions and vice-versa.

The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. The listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes; it is a means of building a recognition of meaning in the language being learned, and a means of learning the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly, but can be learned from the language input. It is a very valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially difficult or idiomatic, e.g. phrasal verbs.

Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that learning language should not involve any stress.

Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups.

Suggested videos:

(for a short detailed explanation and parts of a children’s class)

(staging of an adults’ class)

The Communicative Approach

Communicative language teaching (CLT) or Communicative approach is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. It integrates all four skills for communicative competence (speaking, listening, reading and writing).

It is characterized by:

- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.

- An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.

- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.

Non-communicative activities:

-No communicative desire

-No communicative purpose

-Focus on form, not content

-One language item only

-Teacher intervention

-Materials control

Communicative activities:

-A desire to communicate

-A communicative purpose

-Focus on content, not form

-Variety of language

-No teacher intervention

-No materials control

- The three basic features of communicative activities are: 1. information gap (when a person knows something that another doesn’t), 2. choice (on what to say and how to say it), and 3. feedback (information the speaker receives to know that the purpose of communication has been met).

Content-based instruction, Task-based instruction, Participatory approach

What these three teaching approaches have in common is that they teach through communication, rather than for it.

Content-based instruction

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is designed to provide second-language learners instruction in content and language.

Historically, the word content has changed its meaning in language teaching. Content used to refer to the methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology and vocabulary or sound patterns in dialogue form. Recently, content is interpreted as the use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language teaching/learning.

Benefits:

1. Learners are exposed to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content. Learners explore interesting content & are engaged in appropriate language-dependant activities. Learning language becomes automatic.

2. CBI supports contextualized learning; learners are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as isolated language fragments. Hence students make greater connections with the language & what they already know.

3. Complex information is delivered through real life context for the students to grasp well & leads to intrinsic motivation.

4. In CBI information is reiterated by strategically delivering information at right time & situation compelling the students to learn out of passion.

5. Greater flexibility & adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed as per the students’ interest.

Task-based instruction

Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as Task-based language teaching (TBLT) or Task-based instruction (TBI) focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence. As such TBLL can be considered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).

TBLL was popularized by N. Prabhu while working in Bangalore, India. Prabhu noticed that his students could learn language just as easily with a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on linguistic questions. Major scholars who have done research in this area include Teresa P. Pica and Michael Long.

According to Jane Willis, TBLL consists of the pre-task, the task cycle, and the language focus.

The components of a Task are:

- Goals and objectives

- Input

- Activities

- Teacher’s role

- Learner’s role

- Settings

Now, a task has four main characteristics:

- A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning.

- A task has some kind of ‘gap’ (Prabhu identified the three main types as information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap).

- The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task.

- A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.

Participatory approach

The Participatory approach, also known as the Freirean Approach, is a teaching strategy that incorporates themes or content area that are of interest to the learners. Freire contends that unjust social circumstances originate from illiteracy and the reason for seeking education is to empower learners to take a proactive stance in liberating themselves from their burdens. The Participatory approach is under the umbrella of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) in that it uses topics for specific purposes. The themes derive from real issues that affect students’ daily lives where language learning is used as a vehicle to solve social problems. There are various activities that can be incorporated in this teaching strategy which aim to develop all language domains in the learning process. Learners are also encouraged to take ownership of their learning as well as collaborate with the teacher, including participating in small and whole group activities for learning to be meaningful. However, in the participatory approach meaning precedes form.

A classroom using a participatory approach is different from many teacher-fronted classrooms that have been typical in language learning setting. Participatory approach, through the concept of Freire, opposes the old “banking method” of teaching where the teacher acts as depositor of information and students act as recipients. Unlike the preceding methods, participatory approach utilizes a two-way transaction of learning. In this method, the teacher and students collaborate with each other with the teacher acting as a guide and facilitator. Over the course of the lessons, teachers in participatory approach eventually turn over some facets of control to the students. The topics are generated based from students’ realities and previous experience which make up for an authentic and meaningful learning experience. Topics such as providing safety for women and suggesting better solutions to personal struggles and community problems are discussed allowing students to participate by expressing themselves.

The Oxbridge model

Learners’ communicative competence is the goal.

Teachers’ optimum preparation is the means.

The system created by the teachers is responsible for the students learning.

The Oxbridge model is based on the Triangular Projection Model.

1. It was originated in 2002 and started out of a question: How should we teach English so that the students learn it? The constant concern about students’ learning is the leading engine of Oxbridge.

2. All the methods and their results were thoroughly revised. We believe methods fail in their practical application more than in their theoretical basis. In the classroom we still find many non-communicative activities such as: gap-filling, matching columns, choosing the right answer out of many, etc. We turn every single activity into a communicative activity.

3. Language can be acquired effortlessly, we have eliminated all negative implications of studying and encourage students to increase input in English.

4. The class in done entirely in English and no native translation is contemplated.

5. The system is responsible for the learning process, not a single teacher. A team of teachers sharing the same goals and resources can provide better teaching than a single individual.

6. Speaking and understanding is first, writing is a secondary ability and is a result of students’ communicative competence. You know how to write something if you know how to say it. Spelling is not writing! Knowing to spell and knowing to write is often confused but the latter is the result of a correct command of English, not of correct spelling.

7. The role of the teacher changes and gives place to the playmaker, which is much more active and dynamic than in the rest of the practices. The playmaker directs the game all the time so that the students score their best goals.

8. The playmaker projects knowledge by guiding. The elements of a class are combined in different proportions depending on the level of the learners.

The trade mark of the system is the way classes start and finish: with Quick Questions at the beginning and a recap of wrap up at the end.

PRINCIPLES OF THE TRIANGULAR PROJECTION MODEL

Have a look at the scheme below.

The triangle and its vertexes represent the elements that are always present in each communicative act: we need to say something for the purposes of communication (topic), we use words in order to express our ideas (vocabulary) and we do it with the help of structures to bring coherence and meaning to these words (structures). If these three elements are always in a speech act, then they have to be there in our classes. All our classes include activities aimed at developing fluency (topic activities), ones focused on enriching vocabulary (vocabulary activities) and activities that provide and practice grammar accuracy (structures activities).

These three elements are combined in a different proportion according to the different levels. Thus, in S1 (elementary) students learn basic and selected vocabulary integrated in the most common functions necessary for communicating in daily life.

In P2 more emphasis is still given to vocabulary and structures as students have to build basic structure in L2. One or two topic activities are introduced for the more advanced students in this level.

The P3 level balances in proportion the topic, structure and vocabulary activities. At this level students become more confident in free topics but still need guided activities for accuracy (grammar) and vocabulary and pronunciation.

In P4 and P5 levels topic activities are preferred over grammar, even though more complex structures are essential for the students’ richness of linguistic skills. Vocabulary is always necessary but again, its complexity increases and more idioms, phrasal verbs and specific terminology is contemplated at these levels.

The P4 and P5 levels are also the ones in which students can prepare for specific purposes such as English in law, in medicine, business English, etc.

At Oxbridge we believe in an innovative approach to teaching English. Our system radically changes the traditional idea in four fundamental aspects:

Sessions:

On one hand traditional teaching disappears, and is substituted by constant encouragement to use English, and only English, during the whole session. Not only do we use English in the classroom with our students but also outside. When they see us they think in English.

On the other hand the traditional teacher figure gives way to a system. We teach through the Oxbridge English System and not through the teacher figure. The Oxbridge English system is responsible for the students learning at all times. We work as a team for the final benefit of the student.

Material:

The traditional book disappears and it is substituted by activities through which the PM (playmaker; the person who is part of the system) makes the student use English.

Every class includes an average of 7-8 communicative and engaging activities especially prepared for the different levels of command of English and ideally, 4 are used in an hour class. Structures, vocabulary and fluency activities are all thought to be actively practiced instead of being done in a passive or written way.

Physical space:

The classroom with a blackboard disappears and is substituted by an environment which allows the student to feel more relaxed and amongst friends.

Teachers’ preparation:

A teacher is no longer alone in the task of preparing for his/her classes. A team of teachers sharing the same goals prepares the material under the same system; a system created and developed by the teachers. That way of sharing system and material increases the teachers’ preparation and dramatically reduces time for preparing the resources. As a result we have better prepared and more motivated playmakers who enjoy the classroom dynamics and bring effectiveness for the students.